Nikes Product Mix free essay sample

ConverseIntroduction The increase in the number of companies and the competitive prices that the companies offer has given rise to a competitive situation in the companies (Borden, 1984). Marketing activities in companies are framed based on the ‘marketing mix’ of the company (Borden, 1984). The marketing mix framework consists of 7Ps considering the modern scenario (Booms and Bitner, 1981, cited in Rafiq and Ahmed, 1995). This is an improvement over the original marketing mix of 12 elements (Borden, 1965, cited in Rafiq and Ahmed, 1995). The marketing mix of a company plays a very crucial role in its success. This essay discusses how Nike, Inc. has become a successful brand through the proper use of the marketing mix. Nike, Inc. Nike. Inc. was pioneered by two visionaries Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight (Nike, Inc. a). Bill Bowerman was a famous track and field coach at the University of Oregon and he designed shoes that gave athletes a competitive advantage (Nike, Inc. We will write a custom essay sample on Nikes Product Mix or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page a). When he put forth his ideas, none of the companies were interested in it (Nike, Inc. a). Phil Knight proposed that the quality of running shoes manufactured in Japan could compete with that of a famous German brand (Nike, Inc. a). This initiated Phil Knight and Bill Bowman becoming partners in distributing the Tiger shoes manufactured by Onitsuka Co. in the United States(Nike, Inc. a). Phil Knight and Bill Bowman formed the Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS) and soon Bowman began improvising the Tiger shoes and he started testing them on the athletes (Nike, Inc. a). The name Nike was framed by Jeff Johnson, a full time employee at BRS in 1971 and he also designed many of Nike’s early shoes (Nike, Inc. a). In the meantime the relation between BRS and Onitsuka began to deteriorate and Phil and Knight wanted to create their own brand of athletic shoes, leading to the creation of the brand mark of the ‘Swoosh’ (Nike, Inc. a). The next level of progress came in with the outsole that had waffle type nubs for traction but were lighter than traditional shoes (Nike, Inc. a). In the 1980s, Nike became a publicly traded company but also had a fall from the position of industry leader because of production miscalculation but, the debut of signature shoe for an NBA rookie Michael Jordan helped bolster Nike’s bottom line (Nike, Inc. a). In 1987s Nike tarted a major product and marketing campaign for regaining their position and in 1989, Nike’s cross training business exploded and by end of that decade Nike regained position as the industry leader (Nike, Inc. a). During 1990s, Nike set up its world headquarters in suburban Portland, Oregano and Nike signed up with many ath letes for endorsements during the (Nike, Inc. a). Today, the company seeks innovative ways to communicate with its consumers and strives to satisfy them (Nike, Inc. a). THE MARKETING MIX OF NIKE, INC. PRODUCT MIX â€Å"The perfect product must provide value for a customer† (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009, p. ). The goods or services that a company produces must be with regard to the needs and the wants of the consumers and the company must be clear if they are providing what the consumers want from them (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009). â€Å"The most significant determinant variable for the demand for sports goods, its growth, and size, are: fashion, the use of value of the sports good, its market price, households’ professions and revenues, the population’s use of the equipment(the ‘equipment rate’), and the sports good’s life cycle. † (Andreff, Szymanski, 2006, p. 27). From the beginning Nike has produced its goods in accordance with the preference of the consumers, the changing trends in fashion and the buying power of their target market and innovation has been one of their key motives (Nike, Inc. a). â€Å"In May 2006, Nike launched the Nike + (NikePlus) platform, a collaboration between Nike and Apple, consisting of an Apple iPod music player, a wireless device to connect the music player to running shoes, a pair of Nike shoes with a special pocket to accept the wireless device, and membership in the iTunes and Nike + online communities (itunes. om and nikeplus. com). The Nike + co-creation platform capitalizes on the connection between running and music. The combination of innovative, mobile technology, online communities and athletic gear expands the field for co-creation† (Ramaswamy, 2008, p. 11). This is a good example of how Nike strives to bring innovation into the products. Nike also has different product lines such as Nike Action Sports, Nike Athletic Training, Nike Basketball, Nike football and Nike Running (Nike, Inc. a). Nike has also changed and developed its products and heir range with the developing technology (Nike, Inc. a). â€Å"Hence, innovation enhances business performance because the product of innovative activities makes a firm more competitive and the process of innovation transforms a firm’s internal capabilities† (Neely et al, 1998). Nike can be said to be a product oriented company because Nike delivers goods like sports shoes and sportswear to the customers and not service to its consumers but, according to Levitt (1972) â€Å"There are only industries whose service components are greater or lesser than those of other industries. Everybody is in service. Thus, Nike is a brand that wants to deliver not only goods to it consumers but also wants to instil the passion of sportsmanship in people which is evident from their mission (Nike, Inc. b). Since the product is not differ ent from the service in this case, only 4Ps of Nike have been explained in the essay. PRICE MIX â€Å"A product is only worth when customers are willing to pay for it† (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009, p. 4). It should be carefully determined which means that it should not be really low or too high, but we must also have in mind that we must have a profit margin (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009). Nike uses the ‘dual pricing’ strategy by which it sells the latest shoe models in premium retail outlets like Footlocker or Niketown and its old shoe models at discounters and outlets (Billington et al, 1998). Dual pricing is less risky than normal pricing of goods but, the company must have an efficient coordination in manufacturing, distribution and marketing of both old and new goods; this is effectively done by Nike making the dual pricing strategy successful (Billington et al, 1998). Nike uses the consumer conception of pricing to influence the price of their products (McConnell, 1968). Nike does this by providing goods in different price ranges and attracts people to different segments (Nike, Inc. a). PLACE (DISTRIBUTION) MIX â€Å"The place where customers buy a product, and the means of distributing your product to that place, must be appropriate and convenient for the customers† (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009, p. 5). Every brand position their products in such a way that they can easily deliver the products to the consumers and this includes that the process of distribution must be ost effective (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009). Nike has gradually developed their distribution channel and expanded their outlets all over the world (Nike, Inc. c). Today Nike has stores in 160 countries and six continents (Nike, Inc. c). All their stores are designed in such a way that it signifies the spirit of sports and implies Nike’s mission, â€Å"To bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world* *If you have a body, you are an athlete†. (Nike, Inc. b) During 2000-2001, Nike encountered huge financial issues which was due to the miscalculation of the future demand by the company, resulting in the mass production of shoes whose models were declining in popularity (Laudon et al, 2004). The company blamed this as a software- i2’s malfunctioning (Laudon et al, 2004). But what both Nike and i2 forgot to see was that if they had had an effective base for the software and done the necessary customizing by using step by step process, Nike could have resolved this issue at an early stage (Laudon et al, 2004). Nike however fixed this problem in 2009 by spending a huge sum of money (Nike, Inc. a). This clearly shows us that though today, Nike has a much systemised channel of distribution, it did have a setback due to its carelessness. However the way they coped up with the setback is what makes them a successful company. PROMOTION MIX â€Å"Promotion is a way the company communicates what it does and what it can offer customers† (The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009, p. 5). Promotion includes advertising, sales promotions, trade promotions and personal selling to the consumers (Kotler, 2002, cited in Riaz and Tanveer, 2012). Nike, Inc. as a widespread promotion campaign like sale time discounts and offers (Nike, Inc. a). Apart from this, Nike has been using successful athletes and sports persons from the beginning to endorse their products (Nike, Inc. a). Steve Prefontaine was the first ambassador to Nike when it was BRS (Nike, Inc. a). Later when Nike, Inc. was developed Nike started getting famous athletes as their ambassadors; few of them were Tiger Woods and Michael Jordon (Nike, Inc. a). â€Å"The ads will still capture the corporate philosophy of grit, determination and passion of heroes and hero worship in a humor way by many top athletes† (Deng, 2009, p. 03). In 2002 Nike wanted to go beyond the concept of promoting their products, celebrities and offers so, they started the ‘Secret Tournament’ which was their first global market effort in regard to the World Cup and it’s reach was much more than all the advertisement, and promotions put together (Nike, Inc. a). Nike has expanded a lot in the last few years and it has even become the official sponsor of the Nation Football League [NFL] for the year 2012 (Nike, Inc. a). Nike also sponsor major teams like Manchester United (Anonymous, n. ). It is a general conception that when the fans of a particular team are loyal to that team, they in turn become loyal to the sponsoring brand also (Linnemann, 2007). From this it is seen that when a sports team is endorsing a brand, the fans of the particular teams get attracted to the brand sponsoring them and so they are induced to buy the products of that particular brand. Thus, both the team and the brand get popularity. This can be said to be one of the most famous methods of promotions which Nike has used in a very correct manner. Apart from this, when we look at the advertisements of Nike, â€Å"The ads will rarely focus on the product itself, but on the person wearing the product† (Deng, 2009, p. 103). This kind of advertising can make the consumer feel more drawn towards the product and will influence him to buy it. Promotion can said be an important component of the marketing activities ok Nike, Inc. CONCLUSION The marketing mix strategy of a firm is said to be the base of its success. A company should know how to make proper use of the marketing mix. As seen, Nike had a bad time because to the lack of proper use of the marketing mix. Nike has not been having a perfect marketing mix throughout its existence. It did have setbacks in the channels of distribution. They should focus more on how the products can be delivered to different regions and they must also focus as to what products are to be distributed to the different countries. Nike as a brand has not only sold its products well but has also strongly put forth the idea that anyone can be an athlete. This encourages physical activity among the people and helps them to stay fit and healthy. Nike as a brand is very successful in attracting consumers and retaining them by using many loyalty techniques. This is the main reason for the success of Nike, Inc. Words in essay- 2000 words. REFERENCE: Andreff, W. and Szymanski, S. (2006) Handbook on the Economics of Sport. Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 27 Anonymous (n. d), Official Sponsors. Available at: http://www. manutd. com/en/Club/Sponsors. aspx? sponsorid={B796C032-0FE8-4930-9E1C-33C4EB6C6C8F} (Accessed: 21 November 2012) Billington, C. Lee, L. H. and Tang, S. C. (1998) â€Å"Successful strategies for product rollovers†, Sloan Management Review, pp. 3-30 Borden, N. H. (1984), â€Å"The Concept of the marketing mix†, Journal of Advertising Research, June, pp. 7-12 Deng, T. (2009) â€Å"Just Done It Nike’s New Advertising Plan Facing Global Economic Crisis†, International Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 102-105, [Online]. Available at: www. ccsenet. org/journal. html [Accessed : 23 October 2012] Laudon K, C. Laudon J, P. , 2004 , Essentials of Management Information Systems, Managing the Digital Firm Sixth edition Available at: http://wps. prenhall. com/bp_laudon_essmis_6/21/5555/1422333. cw/content/index. tml [Accessed: 22 October 2012] Levitt, T. (1972), â€Å"Production line approach to service†, Harvard Business Review, September/October, pp. 41-52 Linnemann, J. J. T. (2007), â€Å"The effect of sponsorship on brand loyalty: The impact on current customers due to negative incidence† [Online]. Available at: http://arno. unimaas. nl/show. cgi? fid=11403 McConnell J. Douglas (1968) â€Å"The Journal of Business† Chicago Journals, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 439-444[Online]. Available at: http://www. jstor. org/stable/pdfplus/2351544. pdf [Accessed: 21 October 2012] Neely, A. and Hii, J. 1998), â€Å"Innovation and business performance: A literature review†. University of Cambridge. Nike, Inc. a, Available at: http://www. nikeinc. com/ [Accessed: 21 October] Nike, Inc. b, Available at: http://nikeinc. com/pages/about-nike-inc [Accessed: 21 October] Nike, Inc. c, Available at: http://nikeinc. com/pages/locations [Accessed: 21 October] Rafiq, M. and Ahmed, P. K. (1995), â€Å"Using the 7Ps as a generic marketing mix, an exploratory survey of UK and European marketing academics†, Marketing intelligence and Planning, Vol. 13, n 9. MCB University Press Ramaswamy, V. 2008),Co-creating value through customers experiences: the Nike case, Strategy amp; Leadership, Vol. 36 Iss: 5 pp. 9 – 14 [Online] Available at: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/10878570810902068 [Accessed: 22 October 2012] Riaz, W. and Tanveer, A. (2012), â€Å"Marketing Mix, not Branding†, Asian Journal of Business and Management Sciences, Vol. 1 No. 11, pp. 43-52 The Chartered Institute of Marketing, 2009 â€Å"Marketing and the 7Ps: a brief summary of marketing how it works† The Charted Institute of Marketing [Online]. Available at: http://www. cim. co. uk/files/7ps. pdf [Accessed: 21 October 2012]

Free Essays on Ancestors Of The Modern Computer

Ancestors of the Modern Computer Today’s computers are used to do thousands of different tasks. They control and guide so many things that are important in current society. Computers make difficult tasks simpler, time consuming jobs shorter, and life in general easier. Man has always looked for some way to make their work quicker and easier. Probably, the first thing that ever started us in the direction conceiving the idea for the computer was the need for printing text and solving complicated mathematical calculations. Man’s first solution to making math simpler was the abacus, which is still used in some parts of the world today. Later inventions were machines with gears and wheels that could add and subtract, and ones that used punch cards to give the machine information. These instruments were not used widely, nor have any kind of an impact on their society. While they could have been put to good use, they were just little too ahead of their time. Printing and writing is another tedious task that computers simplify. Originally people had to copy entire books by hand so they could be circulated. This method would take up tremendous amounts of time. Later the idea for a printing press came about. Little letters would be etched into small wood or metal blocks. Ink would be put on the blocks and then transferred onto the paper. Even though this took less time it still took too much. First-Generation computers were first created in 1945. These machines were very large and used vacuum tubes which made the computer heat up quickly.... Free Essays on Ancestors Of The Modern Computer Free Essays on Ancestors Of The Modern Computer Ancestors of the Modern Computer Today’s computers are used to do thousands of different tasks. They control and guide so many things that are important in current society. Computers make difficult tasks simpler, time consuming jobs shorter, and life in general easier. Man has always looked for some way to make their work quicker and easier. Probably, the first thing that ever started us in the direction conceiving the idea for the computer was the need for printing text and solving complicated mathematical calculations. Man’s first solution to making math simpler was the abacus, which is still used in some parts of the world today. Later inventions were machines with gears and wheels that could add and subtract, and ones that used punch cards to give the machine information. These instruments were not used widely, nor have any kind of an impact on their society. While they could have been put to good use, they were just little too ahead of their time. Printing and writing is another tedious task that computers simplify. Originally people had to copy entire books by hand so they could be circulated. This method would take up tremendous amounts of time. Later the idea for a printing press came about. Little letters would be etched into small wood or metal blocks. Ink would be put on the blocks and then transferred onto the paper. Even though this took less time it still took too much. First-Generation computers were first created in 1945. These machines were very large and used vacuum tubes which made the computer heat up quickly....

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, Roman Statesman

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, Roman Statesman Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (c. 519–430  BCE) was a farmer, statesman, and military leader who lived in early Rome. He considered himself a farmer above all, but when he was called to serve his country he did so well, efficiently, and without question, even though a prolonged absence from his farm could mean starvation for his family. When he served his country, he made his stint as dictator as brief as possible. For his faithful service, he became a model of Roman virtue. Fast Facts: Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Known For: Cincinnatus was a Roman statesman who served as the kingdoms dictator during at least one time of crisis; he later became a model of Roman virtue and public service.Also Known As: Lucius Quintius CincinnatusBorn: c. 519 BCE in the Kingdom of RomeDied: c. 430 BCE in the Roman RepublicSpouse: RacillaChildren: Caeso Early Life Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was born around 519 BCE in Rome. At the time, Rome was still a small kingdom made up of the city and its surrounding territory. Lucius was a member of the Quinctia, a patrician family that produced numerous state officials. Lucius was given the name Cincinnatus, meaning the curly-haired. Historians believe that Cincinnatuss family was wealthy; however, little else is known about his family or his early life. Consul By 462 BCE, the Roman kingdom was in trouble. Conflicts had escalated between the wealthy, powerful patricians and the lesser plebeians, who were fighting for constitutional reforms that would have placed limits on patrician authority. Dissension between these two groups eventually turned violent, weakening Roman power in the region. According to legend, Cincinnatuss son Caeso was one of the most violent offenders in the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians. To prevent the plebeians from assembling in the Roman Forum, Caeso would apparently organize gangs to push them out. Caesos activities eventually led to charges being brought against him. Rather than face justice, however, he fled to Tuscany. In 460 BCE, the Roman consul Publius Valerius Poplicola was killed by rebel plebeians. Cincinnatus was called in to take his place; in this new position, however, he apparently had only moderate success in quelling the rebellion. He eventually stepped down and returned to his farm. At the same time, the Romans were at war with the Aequi, an Italic tribe about whom historians know very little. After losing several battles, the Aequi managed to trick and trap the Romans. A few Roman horsemen then escaped to Rome to warn the Senate of their armys plight. Dictator Cincinnatus was apparently plowing his field  when he learned he had been appointed dictator, a position the Romans had created strictly for emergencies, for six months. He was asked to help defend the Romans against the neighboring Aequi, who had surrounded the Roman army and the consul Minucius in the Alban Hills. A group of Senators was sent to bring Cincinnatus the news. He accepted the appointment and dressed in his white toga before traveling to Rome, where he was given several bodyguards for protection. Cincinnatus quickly organized an army, calling together all the Roman men who were old enough to serve. He commanded them against the Aequi at the Battle of Mount Algidus, which took place in the region of Latium. Although the Romans were expected to lose, they quickly defeated the Aequi under the leadership of Cincinnatus and his Master of the Horse, Lucius Tarquitius. Cincinnatus made the defeated Aequi pass under a yoke of spears to show their subjugation. He took the Aequi leaders as prisoners and brought them to Rome for punishment. After this great victory, Cincinnatus gave up the title of dictator 16 days after it had been granted and promptly returned to his farm.​ His faithful service and lack of ambition made him a hero in the eyes of his countrymen. According to some accounts, Cincinnatus was appointed dictator again for a later Roman crisis in the wake of a grain distribution scandal. This time, a plebeian named Spurius Maelius was allegedly planning to bribe the poor as part of a plot to make himself king. There was a famine going at the time but Maelius, who was in possession of a large store of wheat, was allegedly selling it to other plebeians at a low price to curry favor with them. This worried the Roman patricians, who feared he had ulterior motives for his generosity. Once again, Cincinnatus- now 80 years old, according to Livy- was appointed dictator. He made Gaius Servilius Structus Ahala his Master of the Horse. Cincinnatus issued orders for Maelius to appear before him but Maelius fled. During the ensuing manhunt, Ahala ended up killing Maelius. A hero again, Cincinnatus resigned his post after 21 days. Death There is little information about Cincinnatuss life after his second term as dictator. He is reported to have died around 430 BCE. Legacy The life and accomplishments of Cincinnatus- whether true or merely legendary- were an important part of early Roman history. The farmer-turned-dictator became a model of Roman virtue; he was celebrated by later Romans for his loyalty and brave service. Unlike some other Roman leaders, who plotted and schemed to build their own power and wealth, Cincinnatus did not exploit his authority. After he had performed the duties required of him, he swiftly resigned and returned to his quiet life in the country. Cincinnatus is the subject of several notable artworks, including Riberas Cincinnatus Leaves the Plough to Dictate Laws to Rome. Many places are named in his honor, including Cincinnatti, Ohio, and Cincinnatus, New York. A statue of the Roman leader stands in Tuileries Garden in France. Sources Hillyard, Michael J.  Cincinnatus and the Citizen-Servant Ideal: the Roman Legends Life, Times, and Legacy. Xlibris, 2001.Livy.  Rome and Italy: the History of Rome from Its Foundation. Edited by R. M. Ogilvie, Penguin, 2004.Neel, Jaclyn.  Early Rome: Myth and Society. John Wiley Sons, Inc., 2017.

A Critical Exploration of Roles and Professionalism Essay

A Critical Exploration of Roles and Professionalism - Essay Example Professionalism in this respect and in relation to this paper and that of teaching profession in England shall be taking to encompass teacher’s conduct, their commitment to quality and to learners and upholding of positive attitude. A desirable teacher is the one who assists the learners to learn. The roles undertaken by the teacher require both educational expertise as well as content knowledge. As briefly indicated earlier, the teacher acts as a facilitator, as a role model to the learners, as an information provider, as a leaning resources developer, as a planner and as an assessor. In England the teacher is supposed to pass on information as well as knowledge to the learners. This is presumably the primary role that the teacher plays in facilitating leaning. Here the teacher is expected to share their thoughts in assisting to illuminate the ideas that underlie a certain subject of study. As a role model the teacher should uphold good moral grounds that every learner should emulate. The teacher on the other hand should at all time act as a learning facilitator and a mentor to their learners (Shirley et al. 1984). In England there has been a move towards having a more learner centred learning. Therefore, the teacher has become more of a facilitator in the learning process. The teacher is also taken to be an assessor of learners’ competence. This is where the teacher is supposed to be an excellent examiner who is able to incorporate all the assessment issues. The teacher is supposed to come up with the required learning outcomes as well as assess the learn ers’ leaning outcomes. In the process of assessing the learners’ competence in grasping the content taught, the teacher also assess themselves as the results indicate the effectiveness of the teaching processes applied there before. This encompasses the evaluation role that the teachers should play in instilling knowledge which forms a

Schweitzer and his Reverence for Life Philosophy Research Paper

Schweitzer and his Reverence for Life Philosophy - Research Paper Example Albert Schweitzer’s ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy not only applies to human beings, but states the importance of applying love, compassion, and caring to plants and animals as well. This philosophy can be seen as related to early modern attempts to integrate the teachings of Eastern religions into the Western worldview. In the history of many ethical philosophies around the world, regarding all living things as being sacred and equal to human life is a viewpoint that has been excluded as a social foundation for morality and ethics. Schweitzer accepted the truth to be that all life is sacred and holy, and from this believed we can only inflict death on another living being out of necessity. For most people in the world, love, compassion, and kindness extends to human beings only as a basis for morality, and animals or plants are viewed as subservient life forms whose views are not important to consult in developing society or the progress of evolution. For Albert Schweitzer, the ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy was seen as a means to reform or change this moral failure in the West based upon the view that all of life is holy and sacred. Schweitzer’s philosophy drew heavily on the principles of Eastern religions, particularly Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism.... er, Schweitzer tried to live his views at the highest level and has become a symbol of humanitarianism and altruism in the service of an expanded view of life in the universe and moral awareness. Schweitzer’s ‘Reverence for Life’ philosophy can be seen in many ways as similar to Gandhi’s ‘Satyagraha,’ yet scholars state that the two historical figures never met directly. (Isaacs, 2008) Schweitzer himself writes that the teachings of Buddhism were discovered by him in following the Schopenhauer-Nietzsche lineage, and that Nietzsche’s â€Å"Exaltation for Life† philosophy impressed him along with the moral, Unitarian, and compassionate basis of Eastern religion in building his personal views. (Isaacs, 2008) One aspect that shows Schweitzer’s sincerity in humanitarianism is the fact that he returned to education to study medicine after already being a famous and respected writer on humanitarian philosophy. (Joy, 1950) His choi ce of the medicine profession and example of service in Africa was meant to be a living example of his humanitarian philosophy, and it was, in the highest sense. In contrast to the racism, imperialism, and brutality of some Europeans during the Colonial era, Schweitzer’s path of action can be seen as consistent with Christianity, with Eastern religions, and also with the combined moral essence that is gathered from study of all religions in unity. Schweitzer’s philosophy related to Theosophy, Anthroposophy, Satyagraha and other attempts by modern thinkers, scholars, and leaders in Europe to introduce the profound truths of Eastern religion to the West. Yet, Schweitzer’s focus on the humanitarian aspects of service which overcame the racist and violent aspects of Imperialism through peaceful non-violence and loving kindness cannot

The Dredd Scott Case Essay -- Supreme Court American History Slavery E

The Dredd Scott Case The Dredd Scott case involved a landmark decision in the history of the Supreme Court, in the history of the United States the decision in this case was one of the most damaging statements in the history of the Supreme Court, involving the citizenship of a black person in the United States, and the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise in 1820. The history of a black man named Dredd Scott states that he was a slave originally owed by a family by the name of Blow, which ended up selling him in 1833 to an army surgeon by the name of Dr. John Emerson of St. Luis. Due to his involvement as an army surgeon, Emerson was transferred to numerous places such as Rock Island, Illinois, Fort Snelling in the Wisconsin Territory then back to St. Louis in the end of 1838. Scott had accompanied Emerson throughout this period. Emerson had taken Scott to places that forbidden slavery according to the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and Scott was even allowed to marry during this! time period on fre e territory, his companion being a woman who was also a slave owned by Emerson. As Emerson and Scott had returned to St. Louis, a territory where slavery was legal, Emerson died and Scott was left to his widow, who eventually gave Scott back to his original owners, the Blows. Henry Blow, Scott’s original master, was opposed to the extension of slavery into the Western territories, and Blow lent Scott’s residence on free soil in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory had made him a free man. In 1846, Dredd Scott brought suit in the state court on the grounds that residence in a free territory released him from slavery. A lower state court had found to be in favor of Scott, but in 1852, the Supreme Court of Missouri ruled that upon his return to territory where slavery was legal, the status of slavery was reattached to him and therefore he had no standing before the court. The case was brought before the federal circuit court, which took jurisdiction, but held against Scott. The case was taken on appeal to the Supreme Court, where it was argued at length in 1855 and 1856 and finally decided in 1857. The decision handed down by a majority of the vote of the court was that there was no power in the in the existing form of government to make citizens slave or free, ! and at the time of the formation of the US Constitution they were not and could not be citi... ...than presiding over a session of the circuit court), Taney on the 28th of May, 1861, declared Merryman entitled to his freedom on the grounds that he was illegally detained. In an unusual move, he filed and opinion condemning Merryman’s arrest as an arbitrary and illegal denial of civil liberty. Taney stated that military detention of civilians like Merryman was unconstitutional because only congress had authority to suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus. Taney described the president as a mere administrative officer charged with faithful enforcement of the laws. according to the Chief Justice this amounted to a constitutional duty not to execute the laws "as they are expanded and adjudged by the co-ordinate branch of the government, to which that duty is assigned by the constitution." Taney sent a copy of his opinion to Lincoln. President Lincoln justified his action in a message to Congress in July 1861. He reasoned further that the framers did not intend that in an emergency no action should be taken to protect the public safety by suspending Habeas Corpus until Congress should be assembled. More importantly he ignored Taney’s opinion. Merryman, however, was later released.

Management theory and practice

IntroductionMary Parker Follett (1868-1933), was an early political scientist and is considered to be one of the most prominent American management theorists in the earlier half of the 20th century (Montana & Chimov 2000, p.17). She is considered to be one of the founders of the field of Public Administration and organization studies. Labeled by many famous management writers, as the ‘Prophet of Management’ and the ‘Mother of Scientific Management’, she was a critical and independent thinker who has a powerful impact on the management theory in the 1920s and 1930s (Orlikowski 1996, p.427).Though an American by birth her work was better known in other countries like Britain and Japan. Some theorists attribute this to her being a woman with ideas that were far beyond her time. Another reason why her work did not have as much impact as other management theorists may also be because she worked as a social worker rather than in exalted business circles.Her approa ch for a social responsibility and working together was also in direct contrast to the use of power and authority, which was prevalent in the times when she was writing and lecturing (Tosi, Mero & Rizzo 2001, p.11). The multinational and multicultural expansion of businesses has led to a different nature of roles and responsibilities among the management group. Today many companies are struggling towards corporate social responsibility and the ideas which Ms Follett had introduced years ago are being brought back into the light.The works of Mary Parker became obscure for a long time due to the disinterest among the companies at the time to look for a social responsibility and team work based organization. During her earlier studies, she met Dr. H Metcalf who later published many of her lectures. Dr. Metcalf together with Colonel L. Urwick together in the year 1941 assembled her lectures in a book called Dynamic Administration, which forms the basis for many researches looking for Fo llett’s work (Orlikowski 2003, p. 426)The Ideas of Mary Parker FollettMary Parker Follett challenged the ideas of scientific management prevalent at the time, and helped in laying foundations to the human relations school of management (Witzel 2003 p. 102). Her idea was to control people by working with them. The industry at that time was completely hierarchical and authority and power were exerted in a military style. Follett however rooted for an entirely different style of management. She advocated for flatter hierarchies, teamwork and participative management leadership based on ability, cooperative conflict resolution and a shared corporate vision (Bloom & Reichert 1998, p.258).This may be one of the reasons why her ideas were not immediately accepted in the US, where power games were the mainstay for any type of business. The companies were inherently family businesses and the leadership was the next successor to the family whether worthy or not. Teamwork was an unheard of concept, as the management scoffed at it and the subordinates worked solely at the directions of their superiors.Follett’s research and writings pointed to a collaborative approach to problem solving which advocated compromise. In fact one of her favorite admonitions to the management was ‘don’t over-manage your employees’, calling over-managing of employees as bossism. Now days, this process is known as micromanaging by many of the corporate houses.According to her workers could recognize the logic of a situation present in any management request and would comply accordingly (Montana & Chamov 2000, p. 17). Hence, the management task was to formulate their requests in a logical way but to resist giving too many orders. Her work in modern times constitutes the basis of problem solving and hence is receiving renewed interest.For avoiding over-management situations in organizations, Mary Parker developed the law of situation in 1928. According to her, lea ders would be more successful if they would adjust their style of leadership to the needs of their subordinates and to the requirements of the situation(Covell, Walker, Siciliano & Hess 2007, p.37) .This approach is reflected in today’s scenario as contingency view, and can be seen in almost every aspect of management. Organizations usually have contingency plans, which are basically options for every situation which is likely to be encountered. A further offshoot of this plan is the Risk Management, which is the current buzzword in management of organizations.Mary Follett thought that use of authority may have negative effects. Contrary to the popular belief it does not flow downward on principle, but the interactions of various process and most importantly people with intelligent thought influence its progress throughout the channels (Tosi, Mero & Rizzo, 2000, p. 11). Also in case of conflicts, she thought that a collaborative solution would tend to be productive as it woul d lead to integrative problem solving, rather than just exerting authority over the subordinates to impose a solution. In a sense differences would have a positive effect as they would lead to an analysis of the entire boundary of the solution.Mary Follett considered the process of management to be participative instead of one-sided. It hence follows that the job of the management is to channel both group activity and group conflicts and use them constructively to find solutions. She understood the complex social situations and focused on the working groups, which in her view should be managed efficiently instead of order to get the best results (Collins 2000, p. 54). This holds true in today’s world with many companies being too large and hence being de-centralized without losing their identity or corporate culture. Hence, management should focus on getting things done by their employees instead of controlling them at every level.The theories proposed by Mary Follett were no t just related to organizations. Some of them also concerned the professional working within these organizations. The popular term used by employees in recent times is professionalism. The word was defined by Mary Parker in a way that holds true in recent terms. According to Follett, â€Å"A professional is a person who maintains loyalty to a code of ethics that transcends to a loyalty to the rest of the organization.† (Shell 2003, p.2) Hence, the term is usually used by freelance or consultants who do not bend their ethics for loyalty towards a company.Applications of Follett’s principles to organizationsMary Follett was one of the pioneers of the profession of Management Consultant in Britain. She worked for global giants like Unilever as wells as progressive Quaker firms (Murphy 2005 p. 80). In both these organizations she held major influence in bringing the human relations principles to managements.Her thoughts however were forgotten for a long time before the glo balization of organizations and the consequent increase in difficulty in managing organizations by a single party. This prompted a structure of globalization where the organization looked into becoming better managed rather than more controlled. The principle of human relations can be seen in many of the organizations whether they explicitly follow the principles or notAs an example Samsung is one of the giant corporations which had to be decentralized due to the political conditions prevalent in Korea at the time. The company went in for a complete decentralization where each of the industries are governed by an independent body.However, each of the companies follows single corporate vision which joins the company under one head. Samsung prepares its own chips for the end products, and is a world leader in both the mobile and chip segments. The effective delegation of work is one of the chief elements of Mary Follett’s lecturesOne of the major ironies is that while the work of Mary Parker was not very much in vogue in United States, countries like Britain and especially Japan embraced her philosophy. The Japanese have always been appreciative of her work because it has been in tune with the consensual, thoughtful, careful and above all respectful approach which is the characteristic of Japanese people.This is probably the reason why many of the Japanese companies follow the approach for joining huge corporations –Sony is an example of a huge company conglomerate which is entirely decentralized. In addition it is collaboration with many companies for future research (Mant 1999, p. 99)ReferencesBooksBloom SL, Reichert M, 1998, Bearing Witness: Violence and Collective responsibility, Haworth Press, NewYork Collins DV, 2000, Management Fads and Buzzwords: Critical Practical Perspectives, Roultedge, NewYork Covell D, Walker S, Siciliano J, Hess PW, 2007, Managing Sports Organizations: Responsibility for Performance†, Elsevier, Oxford Mant A, 19 99, Intelligent Leadership, Allan & Unwin, New South Wales Montana PJ, Chamov BH, 2000, Management, Barron’s Educational Series, NewYork Murphy CN, 2005, Global Institutions: Marginalization and Development, Roultedge, NewYork Orlikowski WJ, 2003, Information Technology and Changes in Organizational Work, Springer, London Shell RL, 2003, Management of Professionals, CRC Press, NewYork Tosi HL, Mero NP, Rizzo JR, 2000, Managing Organizational Behavior, Blackwell Publishing, OxfordWitzel M, 2003, Fifty Key Figures in Management, Roultedge, NewyorkInternet Articleshttp://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/mgmt_decentralzation_delegation.html